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| A Muslim Palestinian woman and her children prepare traditional foods in their home during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. |
| © Annie Griffiths Belt/CORBIS |
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The many cultures of the Middle East
Culture, a shared set of traditions, belief systems, and behaviors, is shaped by history, religion, ethnic identity, language, and nationality, among other factors. The Middle East consists of approximately 20 countries, with many different religions and a variety of ethnic and linguistic groups. Given this diversity, we should not be surprised to find a multitude of different cultures coexisting in the region.
Stereotypes about the Middle East
During the 19th century, translations of the Arabian Nights and archaeological discoveries in Egypt dominated the imaginations of people in the West who had never visited the Middle East. These armchair explorers conjured up competing images of a desert region populated by nomads and camels and, of course, pyramids, but also brimming with all manner of sweet and savory treats in bustling urban bazaars. During the 20th century, stories about the Middle East have tended to focus on oil wealth, territorial wars, and religious conflicts. All of these do exist, but there is much more to life in this area.
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A fruit vendor at a market in Alexandria, Egypt [ enlarge ] |
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Daily life in the region is too complex to be summarized on a Web page; we can only begin to suggest the multiple variables involved in the lives of people there. A common thread that runs through many lives is the importance of family and the values that derive from having a strong extended family: respect, honor, and loyalty.
Religion in the cultures of the Middle East
The Middle East is the birthplace of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, all
monotheistic
religions that grew from the same tradition. Each religion used the texts from earlier groups, and so they share many rules and beliefs. For example, Islam and Judaism observe the same dietary rules and have a similar focus on religion as a foundation for civil law. All three share a tradition of prophets, from Adam and Abraham to Solomon and Joseph. Jesus is significant for both Christianity and Islam, and Muslims in addition follow the teachings of
Muhammad.
Religion plays a large part in the rhythm of daily life, not only through prayer and study, but also in determining the end of the work week. Shops in different neighborhoods close down on Fridays for the Muslim holy day, Saturdays for the Jewish Sabbath, and Sundays for the Christian day of rest. Religious festivals and remembrances, like Id al-Fitr (the Festival of Fast-Breaking, celebrated at the end of Ramadan), or the Jewish Passover holiday, or Easter Sunday as determined by the Roman or Eastern Orthodox Christian churches, are all recognized as national holidays in different countries.
An awareness of God (Arabic: Allah) is exhibited in common Arabic expressions that are used throughout the region -- even in Turkey and Iran, where Arabic is not the local language. A common response to "How are you?" is "Ilhamdillah!" -- "Praise be to God." When expressing hope for a future event, one might say "Inshallah" -- "God willing." The exclamation "Mashallah" -- "What God wills!" -- is often heard as an expression of delight, at the sight of a new baby, for example. While there are those for whom these phrases reflect the divine, others use them the way many English speakers use "Good-bye" (literally, "God be with ye").
Religion plays a role in national and international politics as well. Turkey has a Muslim majority, but is officially a secular nation. Other countries in the region identify themselves with a specific religion, mostly Islam. Lebanon's constitution attempted to provide for power sharing among 18 officially recognized religions, including
Maronite
and
Orthodox Christians,
Sunni
and
Shii
Muslims, and
Druze.
But because the populations of the various groups grew at different rates, this system eventually became less representative of the nation as a whole and civil war broke out.
The poor relations between Israel and most of its Arab neighbors are sometimes described in terms of a perpetual religious conflict between Jews and Muslims. This reading, however, is too simplistic. Although control over important historical sites of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam is a factor in the disagreements, many of the details that stall negotiations have to do with control of land and access to water resources. Furthermore, many Palestinians who demand restitution for their property are Christian, not Muslim, and Egypt's historic treaty with Israel provides a model for how Muslim and Jewish neighbors can live peaceably.
Ethnic diversity at the crossroads of civilizations
Situated between Africa, Asia, and Europe, the Middle East has been a crossroads for traders, travelers, and empire builders for thousands of years. Africans, Central Asians, and Celts have all added to the ethnic mix. Major ethnic groups in the Middle East today include Arabs, Iranians (also known as Persians), Turks, Jews, Kurds, Berbers, Armenians, Nubians, Azeris, and Greeks.
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Kurdish refugees in northern Iraq [ enlarge ] |
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Most of the countries in this region are multiethnic. But even as diversity enhances the cultural richness of a society, it unfortunately may also lead to political conflict. The Kurds, for example, do not have their own nation-state, but are instead spread across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria. Their political and military attempts to create an autonomous Kurdistan have been strongly resisted by those states.
Many languages, three families
The multiplicity of languages spoken in the Middle East reflects its ethnic diversity. Most of these languages come from three major language "families":
- Semitic (including Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic)
- Indo-European (Kurdish, Persian, Armenian)
- Turkic (Turkish, Azeri)
These language families reflect the successive migrations of different peoples into the region. A quick examination of these languages reveals the influence they have had on each other. Persian, for example, is written in Arabic script, while Turkish incorporates vocabulary words from Persian and Arabic. Arabic itself is spoken in regional dialectics that are not always mutually understood. Some ethnic and religious communities have preserved "native" languages for religious use, such as
Coptic
and Greek.
Culture: Family, city, and the globe
The family is an important part of culture in the Middle East, as is evident in the Arabic honorific names that are often used in preference to given names. A man may be called Ibn ("son of") followed by his father's name or Abu ("father of") followed by his child's name.
In traditional Arab societies the family unit is an extended family -- cousins, grandparents, second cousins, cousins-in-law, nieces, nephews, and more -- all living together. This remains true in rural areas particularly. Migration to the cities has broken up some of these extended families, and the number of people living only with their nuclear family in urban areas is increasing.
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Tea drinkers at a café in Turkey [ enlarge ] |
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The difference between life in the village and life in the city sometimes seems to be as great or greater than the difference between living in the Middle East and living in America. Two men in Egypt, for example, may share the same language (Arabic), religion (Islam), and nationality (Egyptian), but one may live in an air-conditioned apartment building with his wife and two children and wear a suit to his government job, while the other may live in a naturally cool mud-brick house surrounded by three generations of relatives and wear a traditional robe, called a
galabiya,
to work a plot of land.
These differences are eroding, however, with the introduction of inexpensive cellular phone service and the ubiquity of television. Even some mud-brick houses are now equipped with satellite dishes that bring news, entertainment, and fashions not only from the capital city, but from around the world as well.
The Middle East in a globalized world
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A busy street in Cairo, Egypt [ enlarge ] |
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Over the past 200 years, and increasingly in the contemporary age of globalization, more and more Western goods -- everything from clothing to food to computers -- have appeared in Middle Eastern markets. Not only goods, but culture as well, have been imported from the West. Western books and movies are popular, especially (but not exclusively) among the urban elite.
In fashion, Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey, banished the
fez
and other aspects of Ottoman dress in favor of European three-piece suits. Today, one might see young people clad in jeans and T-shirts that advertise their fondness for Britney Spears or Titanic walking down the same street as their peers who are wearing traditional
hijab
or galibiyas.
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Outside an Iranian McDonald's restaurant [ enlarge ] |
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There is an active debate in most Middle Eastern communities about how much Western culture and technology can and should be adopted before such influences begin to compromise their culture, traditions, and identity. This discussion will require defining that identity to some degree. Will they characterize themselves as Egyptian? Muslim? Arab? a resident of a particular village? a member of a particular tribe? Most importantly, in what order would they prioritize these qualities? These are not easy questions, but the encroachment of Western influences requires some answers.
Back to top
Related sites
Inside the Kingdom: Fatina Shaker:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/middle_east /saudi_arabia/saudi_shaker_full.html
A Saudi Arabian sociologist talks to NewsHour about women's issues, religion, and politics.
Life in Israel and the West Bank:
http://search.npr.org/cf/cmn/cmnpd01fm.cfm ?PrgDate=04/08/2002&PrgID=5
Talk of the Nation speaks with Palestinians and Israelis about what life is like. Can kids go out and play? Can adults have dinner with friends? How do people make it to religious services?
Fiesta Bowl:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/poems/jan -june01/middleeast_06-13.html
NewsHour presents poems from Israeli and Palestinian poets.
Fashion Slideshow:
http://www.pbs.org/adventuredivas/index.html
This slide show exhibits Iranian women wearing different kinds of veils.
Observing Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/religion/ july-dec01/islam_11-16.html
Islamic scholars discuss the future of Islam as Ramadan begins amid curiosity and concern. (Novemeber 2001)
Crescent and Star: Turkey Between Two Worlds:
http://freshair.npr.org/guestInfoFA.cfm?name=stephenkinzer
Writer Stephen Kinzer describes a country caught between the entrenched ruling elite and its younger, well-educated population who wants democracy.
Pari Zanganeh: Prima Folk/Opera Diva:
http://www.pbs.org/adventuredivas/iran/divas/zanganeh.html
Singer Pari Zanganeh speaks about women and music.
Beauty Shop Bop:
http://www.pbs.org/adventuredivas/iran/dispatches /beauty_video.html
This page links to streaming video of an Iranian beauty parlor and offers a clandestine peek underneath the veil.
Iranian Culture:
http://www.pbs.org/visavis/culture_mstr.html
Vis à Vis looks at Iran's rich traditions of cinema, literature, and music.
Religion & Culture:
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/classroom/lp5.html
Students will consider the theme of religion and culture as they learn about the Hindu-Muslim conflict in the province of Gujarat, India.
Arab Americans: In the Aftermath of the Terrorist Attacks on the U.S.:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers /lessonplans/lifeafter911/arabamerican.html
Students will begin to understand who Arab Americans are, where they come from, and the cultural diversity and complexity of what it means to be Arab American.
Advertisers Tread Lightly:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers /lessonplans/october01/warads/index.html
Students will analyze how one national company responded to the recent tragedy by incorporating special messages into its advertising.
Gender Issues in Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/teach/muslims/
Students will compare and contrast the roles of men and women with regard to various topics in the six countries featured in the film.
Renaissance Man Comparison Poster:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson5.html
Students will learn about both the Sultan Suleyman (b. 1494 C.E.) and another Renaissance character and make comparisons.
Great Thinkers and Accomplishments of Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson4.html
Students will learn about the diverse accomplishments of great Islamic scholars.
Creating a Textile Museum Piece from the Islamic Empire:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson4.html
Students will learn about the importance of the textile industry to the strength and stability of the Islamic Empire in the 11th and 12th centuries.
A Woman's Place:
http://www.pbs.org/visavis/resources_mstr.html
Students will learn about women's status in Iran and the U.S. across different points in history, explain why women in Iran dress and interact with men in specific ways, and relate this to certain groups/religions in the U.S., and adopt the perspective of a woman living at a different time in the U.S. or Iran.
Tolerance in Times of Trial:
http://www.pbs.org/americaresponds/tolerance.html
Students will explore the problems inherent in assigning blame to populations or nations of people. Students will also look at contemporary examples of ethnic conflict, discrimination, and stereotyping at home and abroad.
An Introduction to Islam and Muhammad:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson1.html
Students will compare the major monotheistic belief systems of the world.
Afghanland.com Web Site:
http://www.afghanland.com/home/home.html
A Web site on Afghan culture and politics
Related topics
Religion: Three Religions, One God
How were the modern nation-states of the Middle East created?
What role have natural resources played in the politics and economy of the Middle East?
Related maps
Historic Political Borders of the Middle East
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